Lilacs get about 15 feet tall. There are some fast-growing arborvitaes. I am discovering climbing rose bushes that get about 8-10 feet in three years. Most shrub roots only extend as far out as the drip-line. So something like that would work. You might consider some large perennials, too, such as Joe Pye Weed (which is actually a large bush). Hollyhocks will grow to about 7 feet in one season. I have even had Cleome flowers get about 5 feet tall and bushy with Miracle Grow. Grape vines get big fast, but their roots do spread out, so they may not be a good choice. Japanese Maples are good, and their roots stay very small. They can even be grown in a pot! Some of those get about 20' tall, I think.

I have heard that trees with a strong central trunk would be a good choice because they send down a taproot to support that strong straight trunk, so their roots go down, not out. Trees in dry climates do this also.

have you been on bhg.com? they have a whole section on Gardening and a subtopic about their favorite small trees. I took a quick look and saw a couple of potential ideas...take a look